The article considers the urgent problem of international legal regulation of the transition to green energy in the context of global climate challenges and the need to ensure energy security. The relevance of the study is due to the growing threat of the climate crisis, the depletion of traditional energy resources and the need to improve legal mechanisms for the effective transformation of the global energy system. The study materials are a wide range of international legal documents, including both «soft» legal instruments (declarations, resolutions, political initiatives) and «hard» binding documents (international treaties and agreements). The purpose of the study is to conduct a comparative analysis of the effectiveness of «soft» and «hard» instruments of international law in the field of green energy regulation. The objectives include: analysis of the existing structure of international legal regulation in the field of renewable energy sources; study of recommendatory norms and political initiatives; study of mandatory international legal norms; assessment of their effectiveness in stimulating the transition to green energy. The scientific novelty lies in the comprehensive comparative analysis of the effectiveness of various types of international legal instruments in the context of the global energy transition. The study established the advantage of «hard» legal instruments over «soft» ones in ensuring real progress in the development of green energy due to the presence of legally binding mechanisms, clear control and responsibility systems.
Key words: international law, green energy, renewable energy sources, climate change, Paris Agreement, soft law, sustainable development, energy transition, international cooperation, legal regulation.
Продвижение зеленой энергетики путем международного сотрудничества: мягкие и жесткие правовые подходы
Аннотация. В статье рассматривается актуальная проблема международно-правового регулирования перехода к зеленой энергетике в условиях глобальных климатических вызовов и необходимости обеспечения энергетической безопасности. Актуальность исследования обусловлена нарастающей угрозой климатического кризиса, истощением традиционных энергоресурсов и необходимостью совершенствования правовых механизмов эффективной трансформации мировой энергетической системы. Материалами исследования является широкий спектр международно-правовых документов, включающий как «мягкие» правовые инструменты (декларации, резолюции, политические инициативы), так и «жесткие» обязывающие документы (международные договоры и соглашения). Целью исследования является проведение сравнительного анализа эффективности «мягких» и «жестких» инструментов международного права в сфере регулирования зеленой энергетики. В задачи входят: анализ существующей структуры международно-правового регулирования в сфере возобновляемых источников энергии; исследование рекомендательных норм и политических инициатив; изучение императивных международно-правовых норм; оценка их эффективности в стимулировании перехода к зеленой энергетике. Научная новизна заключается в комплексном сравнительном анализе эффективности различных видов международно-правовых инструментов в условиях глобального энергетического перехода. В исследовании установлено преимущество «жестких» правовых инструментов перед «мягкими» в обеспечении реального прогресса в развитии зеленой энергетики за счет наличия юридически обязывающих механизмов, четких систем контроля и ответственности.
Ключевые слова: международное право, зеленая энергетика, возобновляемые источники энергии, изменение климата, Парижское соглашение, мягкое право, устойчивое развитие, энергетический переход, международное сотрудничество, правовое регулирование.
Introduction. The relevance of the study of international legal cooperation of states in the field of global transition to green energy is due to the urgent need to combat climate change and ensure energy security in the modern world. In the context of the growing threat of the climate crisis, depletion of traditional energy resources and geopolitical tensions, the international community faces an unprecedented challenge to transform the global energy system. The effectiveness of this transition directly depends on the quality of international legal regulation and the degree of coordination of efforts of states. Of particular importance is the analysis of existing legal mechanisms of cooperation, the identification of their shortcomings and the search for ways to improve international legal instruments to accelerate the global energy transition. This determines the need for a comprehensive study of both «hard» and «soft» instruments of international law in this area to develop effective legal solutions that contribute to the achievement of the goals of sustainable development and climate neutrality.
Materials and methods. The study materials include a wide range of international legal documents, including both “soft” legal instruments (declarations, resolutions, political initiatives) and “hard” binding documents (international treaties and agreements). In particular, the following were analyzed: the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement, COP26 documents, decisions and resolutions of the UN General Assembly, the European Green Deal, the ASEAN Action Plan for Energy Cooperation and other international documents in the field of climate and energy. The methodological basis of the study was the comparative legal method, which made it possible to conduct a detailed analysis of the effectiveness of “soft” and “hard” instruments of international law, a systems analysis to study the relationship between various legal mechanisms, a formal legal method to study the content of legal norms, as well as a legal modeling method to assess the potential effectiveness of various legal instruments in the context of the global transition to green energy.
Results. This article analyzes the structure of international legal regulation in the field of renewable energy sources and examines its potential in promoting the development of green energy. The analysis is carried out in two key areas of international law: (1) recommendatory norms and policy initiatives; (2) mandatory international legal norms.
1. Recommended norms and political initiatives. In modern conditions, the international community increasingly turns to recommended norms of law, since traditional mechanisms of legal regulation are not always effective. Recommended norms, including principles and political declarations, are of particular importance in environmental and energy law [ 24 ]. The increasing importance of recommended norms has called into question the traditional classification of sources of international law [ 19 ]. These norms are of particular importance for the development of green energy, stimulating the regulatory response of various entities.
The first recognition of renewable energy sources at the UN level occurred in 1981 [ 23 ]. A significant breakthrough in alternative energy policy occurred in the era of sustainable development, when the Brundtland Commission report formulated the concept of development that takes into account the needs of future generations [ 13 ].
The principles of sustainable development were laid down in the Stockholm Declaration and the Rio Declaration [ 1 ], [ 16 ]. These documents address energy policy through the prism of “unsustainable patterns of production and consumption.” Agenda 21 for the first time called on governments to pursue an active energy policy, including support for renewable energy.
The concept of sustainable development includes four legal elements: intergenerational and intragenerational justice, rational use of natural resources and integration [ 4 ]. The UN Development Programme considers renewable energy sources as a solution for the balance between economic development and environmental conservation.
Energy policy has become central to achieving sustainable development goals over time. In 1997, the UN called on countries to set national sustainable energy targets [ 20 ].
In 2002, the link between energy security, climate change and sustainable development was established. The Johannesburg Declaration set clear goals for the development of alternative energy technologies [ 5 ].
The Johannesburg Plan, with its multiple references to renewable energy, remains the most comprehensive soft law document in this area. Its significance lies in its international recognition of the need to decouple economic growth from environmental degradation, and its attempt to bring national energy policy issues to the international level.
The Commission on Sustainable Development at its 14th and 15th sessions increased its influence on international energy legislation by promoting the use of renewable energy in the context of combating climate change [ 17 ]. However, an attempt to set specific time targets for renewable energy failed due to disagreements among participants. Despite this, global attitudes towards renewable energy have improved significantly since the World Solar Programme of 1996–2005, as reflected in the ongoing calls by UN bodies for an increased share of renewable energy in the global energy mix.
A significant event was the declaration by the UN General Assembly of 2012 as the International Year of Sustainable Energy for All [ 15 ]. In response, the UN Secretary-General launched a green energy agenda calling for a global energy transition and the establishment of specific targets for renewable energy production [ 21 ]. This initiative, although not legally binding, promotes international dialogue and may be transformed into binding international legal norms following consideration by an intergovernmental expert group of possible global sustainable development goals.
Among the modern international legal instruments that fall under the criteria of “soft” international law, we note the following. In 2021, at COP26 in Glasgow, a decision was made to gradually reduce the use of coal and subsidies for fossil fuels [ 9 ]. Within the framework of the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), the Global Energy Transition (GET) was adopted in 2021, defining goals for the development of renewable energy [ 6 ]. At the regional level, the European Green Deal ( 2019) and the “ Fit for 55″ (2021), which sets targets for achieving carbon neutrality by 2050 [ 22 ]. Within the framework of ASEAN, the Action Plan for Energy Cooperation (APAEC) 2021-2025 is in effect, which includes targets for the development of renewable energy [ 12 ].
These documents contain political commitments, targets and recommendations, but do not provide for legal liability for failure to implement them, which is a key feature of “soft” law.
2. Mandatory international legal norms. The international regime to combat climate change is an example of multilateral rule-making aimed at solving global problems of collective action. Through a system of legally binding international treaties, it regulates the internal activities of states in the energy sector, which affect the Earth’s atmosphere and natural processes. However, the existing regime is not effective enough in regulating renewable energy sources as a tool for combating climate change, which may hinder the development of green energy.
The recognition of climate change as a “common concern of mankind” by the UN General Assembly in 1988 led to the adoption of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992 [ 14 ]. This marked a turning point in the international recognition of the role of fossil fuels in climate change and the need to find solutions for adaptation and mitigation. However, the regulatory capacity of the UNFCCC remains limited. Unlike the law of the sea, there is still no comprehensive legal framework for the “law of the atmosphere”, despite the recognition by the International Court of Justice of the material nature of the atmosphere and the consideration by the UN Security Council of the link between climate change and international security.
The UNFCCC, being a framework convention, establishes a minimum of specific obligations for participants, especially in the energy sector [ 18 ]. The basic requirements are limited to the creation of a greenhouse gas emissions inventory and the development of measures to mitigate climate change. In doing so, participating countries must be guided by the principles of international environmental law, including intergenerational equity, precaution and sustainable development, taking into account common but differentiated responsibilities. However, these principles are advisory in nature and serve only to interpret the treaty.
The UNFCCC gives states the freedom to choose domestic measures to achieve the main goal — reducing and stabilizing greenhouse gas emissions to prevent dangerous anthropogenic impact on the climate. Renewable energy is not directly reflected in the convention, limited to vague wording on the obligation to cooperate in the development and implementation of emission control technologies in the energy sector. Such caution in the wording is due to the opposition of oil-producing countries and the United States to any specific emission targets that could affect the use of fossil fuels.
While the UNFCCC defines a general framework for action, the Kyoto Protocol sets legally binding quantitative emission reduction commitments for Annex B countries [ 7 ]. Participants were required to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by at least 5% below 1990 levels in the period 2008–2012. The protocol gives countries the freedom to choose specific measures, only recommending the development of renewable energy sources as one of the possible policy options. Nevertheless, thanks to the flexible mechanisms of the protocol, especially the clean development mechanism, it was possible to reduce CO2 emissions by 45 million tons through clean technology projects.
The subsequent development of the climate regime led to the adoption of the Copenhagen Accord, which set the goal of holding global temperature rise below 2°C and laid the foundation for negotiations on long-term emission reductions [ 8 ]. However, mandatory requirements for the development of renewable energy never appeared in subsequent documents. This created a significant gap of 9-12 gigatons of CO2 between the adopted commitments and scientifically based requirements for keeping warming within 2°C. In response to this problem, the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action was created in 2011, designed to strengthen measures to reduce emissions [ 3 ]. As E.V. Maryin notes, climate legislation largely ignores renewable energy sources, which is especially disadvantageous for developing countries [ 10 ].
In the context of this work, the 2015 Paris Agreement on Climate Change is of particular interest, as it has a complex impact on the formation of green energy in the legal sphere through several key mechanisms [ 11 ]. First, the agreement sets a legally binding goal of keeping the global temperature increase within 2°C (preferably 1.5°C), which creates a legal basis for national legislation to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, inevitably affecting the energy sector. Second, the Nationally Determined Contributions ( NDCs ) mechanism requires participating countries to regularly submit their emission reduction plans, which stimulates the adoption of national laws and regulations in the field of renewable energy. Third, the agreement creates a legal basis for international cooperation through mechanisms for technology transfer and financial support to developing countries, which is reflected in bilateral and multilateral agreements on green energy development. Fourth, the requirement for transparency and reporting stimulates the development of national monitoring, verification and accounting systems in the energy sector. Fifth, the agreement creates a framework for the development of carbon markets and emissions trading mechanisms, which indirectly stimulates investment in renewable energy. Finally, commitments to adapt to climate change encourage countries to adopt legislation that supports sustainable energy systems. All these aspects are reflected in national laws on energy, climate, and environmental protection, forming a comprehensive legal framework for the development of green energy.
Discussion. As part of our study, we conducted a detailed comparative analysis of the effectiveness of “soft” and “hard” instruments of international law in the field of green energy. A number of researchers, in particular E.F. Dovgan, defend the advantages of “soft” law, arguing that such instruments are more flexible, that they can adapt more quickly to technological changes, and that there is less resistance from states when adopting them [ 2 ]. In their opinion, the non-binding nature of “soft” norms allows countries to experiment with different approaches to the development of renewable energy without fear of sanctions for failure to fulfill obligations.
However, our research demonstrates the inconsistency of this position. First, we believe that the absence of legally binding mechanisms leads to systematic non-fulfillment of voluntary commitments in the field of green energy. Second, “soft” instruments do not create sufficient incentives for long-term investment in renewable energy, since they do not guarantee the stability of the regulatory environment. Third, the absence of clear liability mechanisms in “soft” law allows countries to imitate activity in the field of green energy without real action.
“Hard” instruments of international law, by contrast, create the predictable legal environment necessary for large-scale investments in the energy transition. They provide clear mechanisms for control and accountability, stimulate real changes in national laws, and create a basis for effective international cooperation. The success of the Paris Agreement in stimulating national climate action demonstrates the advantages of legally binding international instruments over voluntary initiatives. Thus, while “soft” instruments can play a supporting role, it is “hard” international law that must form the basis of the global transition to sustainable energy.
Conclusion. The conducted research allows us to draw the following conclusions. In the sphere of international legal regulation of green energy, there are two main types of instruments. “Soft” instruments are represented by recommendatory norms, political declarations and initiatives, such as the COP26 decisions in Glasgow on reducing the use of coal, IRENA’s Global Energy Transition, the European Green Deal and the ASEAN Action Plan on Energy Cooperation. These instruments are characterized by flexibility and the absence of legal liability for their failure to implement them. “Hard” instruments, represented primarily by the 2015 Paris Agreement, establish legally binding mechanisms, including specific emission reduction targets, requirements for the submission of national action plans, monitoring and reporting systems, and mechanisms for international cooperation. Our study convincingly demonstrates the advantages of “hard” instruments over “soft” ones for three key reasons: firstly, the absence of mandatory mechanisms in “soft” law leads to systematic non-fulfillment of voluntary commitments; secondly, only legally binding norms create the necessary stability of the regulatory environment for long-term investments in renewable energy; thirdly, clear mechanisms of control and responsibility in “hard” law prevent imitation of actions without real changes. The successful implementation of the Paris Agreement confirms the effectiveness of mandatory international legal instruments in stimulating the global transition to sustainable energy.
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Information about the author:
Jin Fangfei, postgraduate student of the Department of International Law at RUDN University
Информация об авторе:
Фанфэй Цзинь, аспирант кафедры международного права РУДН
