From norms to action: realizing the human rights to water and sanitation in the East African community through the SDG framework

Focused on the East African Community’s countries, this article provides a comprehensive legal analysis of state obligations to realize the human rights to water and sanitation within the framework of the Sustainable development Goals (SDGs). Drawing on international instruments such as the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), General Comment no.15, and relevant regional legal frameworks, the study interprets state duties through the tripartite typology of respect, protect, and fulfill. It situates these normative requirements alongside the role of universality, equity, and international cooperation. The article examines how states must translate human rights norms into actionable legislative, institutional, and policy measures, tackle inequitable, and ensure monitoring and accountability at national and regional levels. By aligning legal and development frameworks, the analysis underscores that access to water and sanitation is not only a policy goal but a binding obligation rooted in dignity, equality, and sustainability, and offers practical recommendations to advance universal access amid resource, governance, and environmental challenges.

Key words: Human Rights to water and sanitation, State Obligations, Sustainable Development Goal6(SDG6), Tripartite Typology, East African Community (EAC), ICESCR, Legal Norms, Accountability Mechanisms, Equity, Resources Constraints.

От норм к действиям: реализация прав человека на воду и личную гигиену в Восточноафриканском сообществе в рамках Целей устойчивого развития

Аннотация: Данная статья, посвященная странам Восточноафриканского сообщества, представляет собой всесторонний правовой анализ обязательств государств по реализации права человека на воду и санитарию в рамках Целей устойчивого развития (ЦУР). Опираясь на международные документы, такие как Международный пакт об экономических, социальных и культурных правах (МПЭСКП), Общий комментарий № 15 и соответствующие региональные правовые рамки, исследование интерпретирует обязанности государств в рамках трехкомпонентной типологии: уважение, защита и исполнение. Эти нормативные требования рассматриваются наряду с ролью универсальности, справедливости и международного сотрудничества. В статье анализируется, как государства должны преобразовывать нормы прав человека в действенные законодательные, институциональные и политические меры, бороться с несправедливостью и обеспечивать мониторинг и подотчетность на национальном и региональном уровнях. Анализ, согласовывая правовые и экономические рамки, подчеркивает, что доступ к воде и санитарии является не только политической целью, но и обязательным обязательством, основанным на достоинстве, равенстве и устойчивости, и предлагает практические рекомендации по обеспечению всеобщего доступа в условиях ресурсных, управленческих и экологических проблем.

Ключевые слова: Права человека на воду и санитарию, Государственные обязательства, Цель устойчивого развития 6 (ЦУР 6), Трехсторонняя типология, Восточноафриканское сообщество (ВАС), МПЭСКП, Правовые нормы, Механизмы подотчетности, Равенство, Ресурсные ограничения.

Introduction

The realization of the human rights to water and sanitation depends not only on their recognition in international and domestic law but also on the concrete obligations that such recognition imposes upon States. The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), together with subsequent interpretations by the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR), provides the normative foundation for understanding the duties of States in implementing these rights[1].

In the contemporary era, these obligations must be read in conjunction with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly Goal 6, which seeks to ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. The SDGs offer a universal policy framework that complements legal obligations under human rights law by introducing measurable targets, indicators, and timelines. While the SDGs are not legally binding, they provide an operational roadmap that can strengthen accountability and guide States in fulfilling their human rights commitments[2].

Within this integrated framework, the implementation of the right to water and sanitation requires States to balance normative obligations with practical realities, such as resource constraints, governance capacity, and environmental sustainability. The SDG approach emphasizes universality, equity, and partnership, aligning with the human rights principles of non-discrimination, progressive realization, and international cooperation[3].

Accordingly, analyzing State obligations in the context of the SDGs involves understanding both the legal dimensions (what States must do under international law) and the policy dimensions (how they can achieve these duties through national and global development frameworks). Situating this analysis within the East Africa Community (EAC), the article examines the interplay of international law, regional frameworks-including the African Charter and EAC treaties -and national implementation. It argues that a synthesized approach, leveraging the SDGs to operationalize human rights law, is indispensable for achieving universal access.

Methodology

The article will use a doctrinal, human rights based legal analysis with a strong normative and interpretative focus. It will interpret and systematize existing international and regional sources (International Covenant on Economic, Social and cultural Rights, General comment no.15, UN General Assembly Resolutions, African Charter, Maputo Protocol, Eastern African Community treaties, soft-law guidelines, national constitutions and policies) to clarify the content of state obligations regarding the rights to water and sanitation in the context of SDG 6.

1.The tripartite typology of obligations

The tripartite typology, formulated by the CESCR and now widely applied across international human rights law, classifies State obligations into three interrelated categories: the duties to respect, to protect, and to fulfill[4]. This analytical framework is essential to understanding how States must act to realize the human rights to water and sanitation both in law and in practice. The obligation to respect requires States to refrain from interfering directly or indirectly with individuals’ access to adequate water and sanitation.

The obligation to protect compels States to regulate and monitor the conduct of third parties, such as private service providers or industrial actors, to prevent them from compromising these rights.

The obligation to fulfill demands that States take positive steps, through legislative, administrative, budgetary, and judicial measures, to ensure universal and sustainable access to safe, affordable, and acceptable water and sanitation services[5]. This typology thus provides a systematic approach to translating abstract human rights norms into actionable State responsibilities. When situated within the SDG framework, it also facilitates the alignment of rights-based obligations with development targets, ensuring that progress towards SDG 6 is consistent with international human rights standards. In essence, the tripartite model underscores that realizing the rights to water and sanitation is not merely a policy choice but a binding legal obligation rooted in the principles of dignity, equality, and sustainability.

1.1. To respect (Non-interference with the access to water and sanitation)

Within the African regional context, a number of instruments and developments shape how the rights to water and sanitation are conceived, protected, and promoted. Although the right to water is not always spelled out explicitly in every regional instrument, the framework nonetheless provides important normative underpinnings for states’ obligations and for civil society advocacy.

The principal legal instrument for human rights in Africa is the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR) of 1981. The Charter guarantees in its Article 16 the right to enjoy the best attainable state of physical and mental health, Article 21 the right to freely dispose of one’s natural resources, Article 22 the right to economic, social and cultural development, and Article 24 the right to a general satisfactory environment favorable to development. These provisions supply a basis for interpreting the right to water and sanitation in the African context[6]. The Charter does not explicitly use the term “right to water” but the rights it affirms create obligations on states to ensure access to resources and conditions necessary for health, development and environment. An important complement to the Charter is the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (Maputo Protocol), which in Article 15 addresses the rights of women to sustainable development, including the right to live in a healthy and sustainable environment[7]. This has been interpreted to support claims for access to safe water and sanitation as key to women’s rights.

A major milestone in the regional water‐rights architecture is the Guidelines on the Right to Water in Africa, adopted by the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR) following Resolution 300 (LX) 2017 of the Working Group on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights[8]. These Guidelines were finalized at the 26th Extraordinary Session of the ACHPR and officially launched in June 2020[9]. They articulate a framework for interpreting states’ obligations in respect of the right to water, including sanitation, household water, water for cleansing and hand‐washing, water for livelihoods, menstrual hygiene management, and ecosystem protection.

Specifically, the Guidelines emphasize that water must be sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable, thereby reflecting principles that echo those enshrined in earlier UN documents but adapted to the African context. They further stress the interdependence of the right to water with other rights (e.g. sanitation, health, food, environment), and call for integrated state strategies, legislative frameworks, monitoring mechanisms, participation of communities, and particular attention to vulnerable groups (women, children, persons with disabilities, rural populations)[10].

From a normative perspective, the African human rights framework thus provides several advantages for advancing water and sanitation rights in a region such as the East African Community (EAC). It provides a regional reference point: states within the African Union (AU) system are expected to align national law and policy with the ACHPR commitments and the ACHPR’s interpretive work. The Guidelines enhance clarity and embed obligations into human rights discourse, framing water and sanitation as rights with accountability implications requiring states to respect, protect, and fulfil[11].

Nevertheless, there are limitations. The ACHPR’s decisions are not always strictly binding; enforceability depends upon national incorporation and political will. Many African states struggle with resource constraints, infrastructure deficits and governance weaknesses that hamper effective realization of water and sanitation rights. Moreover, while the Guidelines provide valuable guidance, they are “soft law” within the regional system[12].

1.2. To protect (regulation of private actors)

The East African Community offers a regional integration platform among various partner states (currently Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, South Sudan and the DRC) with a number of treaties, protocols and programs that touch upon water, sanitation and hygiene issues and thereby offer regional instruments relevant to the rights to water and sanitation[13].

The core treaty is the Treaty for the Establishment of the East African Community of 30 November 1999. While the Treaty addresses economic integration primarily (customs union, common market, etc.), it also emphasizes cooperation in infrastructure, environment, natural resources and their sustainable management[14]. These broad headings make room for water sector cooperation, transboundary water management and WASH initiatives.

One specific instrument is the Protocol for the Sustainable Development of Lake Victoria Basin of 2003, though it has not yet come into force[15]. This Protocol recognizes explicitly that water is a finite and vulnerable resource essential to sustain life, development and the environment and must be managed in an integrated and holistic manner, linking social and economic development with protection and conservation of natural ecosystems[16].

It also emphasizes that the utilization of water should give priority to basic human needs and safeguard ecosystems, and that Partner States agree to cooperate in a coordinated and sustainable manner[17]. This wording speaks directly to rights and governance issues in water management.

More broadly, the EAC Secretariat has been active in implementing WASH‐related projects across the region. For example, a recent EAC press release notes that a WASH Project in partnership with the International Organization for Migration (IOM) and the German Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ) reached over 5 million people living in border communities of the Partner States (Burundi, DRC, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Uganda and Tanzania)[18]. Another EAC project implemented in 2021 targeted hotspots of infectious diseases by strengthening border and transport corridor WASH interventions across the Partner States.

These initiatives reflect a regional operational dimension that complements the treaty and protocol framework. From the perspective of water and sanitation rights, the EAC instruments carry the following features and implications:

• Considering the transboundary and regional cooperation, the Lake Victoria Basin Protocol and other EAC efforts underscore the need for coordinated management of shared water resources, which is critical in East Africa where many basins straddle national borders[19]. Effective transboundary governance has implications for equity, sustainability and human rights: when upstream states limit or degrade shared resources, downstream populations may suffer. Thus, regional instruments can support rights to water by enhancing cooperation and preventing abuse of shared resources;
• Targeting Integration of WASH into regional development, the WASH projects led by the EAC illustrate that water, sanitation and hygiene are not purely municipal or national issues but regional ones, especially in border or corridor contexts. This strengthens the argument that rights to water and sanitation must be supported by regional mechanisms and not solely national policy[20];
• Linking with infrastructure, health, migration and border issues, the EAC WASH programs show that water and sanitation intersect with public health (e.g., infectious disease control), migration and border issues. This reflects a holistic understanding of the human right to water and sanitation, not merely as “access to a tap” but as embedded in broader governance, health and mobility frameworks[21];
• Setting normative potential, though the Lake Victoria Protocol is not yet in force, its language provides a normative reference for partner states. In the context of rights to water and sanitation, the existence of such a protocol signals regional commitment, which can be invoked in domestic reform, advocacy and jurisprudence[22].

Nevertheless, challenges persist. The non-entry into force of key protocols limits their binding effect. Implementation of WASH programs sometimes depends on donor funding and may lack long-term sustainability or full nationwide coverage (e.g., rural remote communities)[23]. Coordination among Partner States can be uneven, and capacity constraints remain. For Burundi in particular, aligning national policies   EAC frameworks may require additional institutional strengthening, funding, and political will.

The EAC regional legal and policy architecture offers important instruments and programs relevant to the rights to water and sanitation. For national actors and advocates—such as those working in Burundi, this means that regional obligations and commitments can bolster national reforms, provide comparative benchmarks, and encourage regional cooperation in water governance.

1.3. To fulfill (positive measures to ensure access)

The obligation to fulfil constitutes the most proactive dimension of the tripartite typology of State duties (to respect, to protect, and to fulfil) that underpin the interpretation of economic, social and cultural rights under international law. It requires States not merely to abstain from interference or prevent third-party violations, but to adopt deliberate, concrete, and targeted measures aimed at the full realization of the rights in question. In the context of the human rights to water and sanitation, the duty to fulfil entails creating the necessary conditions (legal, institutional, financial, and infrastructural) that enable all persons to actually enjoy access to safe, sufficient, and affordable water and sanitation services[24].

The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, in its General Comment No. 15 of 2002, provides that States must take positive steps to facilitate, provide and promote access to water, and where individuals or groups are unable, for reasons beyond their control, to realize that right by their own means, the State must directly provide the service[25]. These measures include ensuring the physical availability of safe drinking water in adequate quantities; guaranteeing affordability through appropriate pricing and subsidies; promoting hygiene education; and expanding infrastructure, particularly in rural and marginalized areas[26].

1.3.1. Legislative and Institutional measures

At the legislative level, the obligation to fulfil requires States to enshrine the right to water and sanitation in domestic law, consistent with the ICESCR and other relevant instruments[27]. Domestic legislation should clearly define entitlements, establish standards for water quality and supply, and create mechanisms for monitoring compliance and redress[28]. In South Africa, for instance, the constitutional recognition of the right to sufficient water has been operationalized through the Water Services Act of 1997, which obliges municipalities to progressively realize access to at least a basic minimum quantity of potable water[29]. Similar legislative efforts exist in countries such as Uruguay, Mexico, and Kenya, reflecting the transformative effect of recognizing water as a justiciable right[30].

Institutionally, the fulfilment of this obligation demands that States establish effective governance frameworks to coordinate and regulate water and sanitation services. The UN Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation has emphasized that fragmented institutional arrangements frequently hinder coherent policy implementation[31]. Thus, States should designate clear institutional responsibilities for planning, financing, regulation, and service delivery, ensuring transparency, accountability, and participation of affected communities[32].

1.3.2 Budgetary and policy measures

The duty to fulfil also requires mobilizing and allocating adequate financial resources. Article 2(1) of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights obliges States to take steps to the maximum of their available resources to progressively achieve the full realization of recognized rights[33]. This principle applies directly to the rights to water and sanitation. Accordingly, States must prioritize these sectors within national budgets and public investment strategies, ensuring sustained financing for infrastructure maintenance and expansion[34]. The CESCR has repeatedly criticized situations where States underinvest in water and sanitation, especially in informal settlements or rural regions[35].

Policy measures to fulfil this obligation include the formulation of national water and sanitation strategies that are human rights-based, inclusive, and aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 6[36]. Such strategies should set clear targets, integrate gender and equity considerations, and include indicators for monitoring progress[37]. For example, Burundi’s National Water Policy (2016) and Kenya’s Water Policy (2021) explicitly recognize the human right to water and sanitation and link national objectives with the SDG framework[38]. The adoption of National Development Plans or Poverty Reduction Strategies that integrate water and sanitation priorities further reflects fulfilment of the obligation to plan comprehensively and progressively realize these rights[39].

1.3.3. Provisions and facilitation

The CESCR distinguishes between two related dimensions of fulfilment: to facilitate and to provide. The duty to facilitate obliges States to take positive actions that strengthen people’s access to water and sanitation through enabling frameworks, such as supporting community initiatives, offering subsidies, or improving water efficiency technologies[40]. Conversely, the duty to provide arises when individuals or groups, due to conditions beyond their control, cannot access water and sanitation services independently. In such cases, the State must directly supply or finance provision to ensure minimum essential levels[41].

This distinction is particularly important in emergency contexts (natural disasters, conflicts, or displacement), where States and humanitarian actors must ensure immediate access to safe water to prevent disease outbreaks[42]. Moreover, the duty to provide extends to marginalized populations, such as those living in informal settlements, remote rural zones, or refugee camps, who might otherwise be excluded from public service networks[43]. Fulfilment therefore entails targeted social programs, rural water supply schemes, and inclusive urban planning[44].

1.3.4 Capacity-Building and International cooperation

The fulfilment obligation is not confined to domestic action; it also encompasses international cooperation and assistance. Article 2(1) of the ICESCR explicitly refers to both individual and collective measures through international assistance. The CESCR has clarified that developed States have a special responsibility to contribute financially and technically to the realization of water and sanitation rights in developing countries[45]. This includes supporting technology transfer, capacity-building, and investment in sustainable water infrastructure through bilateral aid or multilateral channels[46].²⁴

At the regional level, instruments such as the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (Article 16) and the Protocol on the Rights of Women in Africa reinforce States’ obligations to ensure access to water and sanitation as part of the right to health and dignity[47]. The East African Community (EAC) further promotes cooperation on water management through its Protocol on Environment and Natural Resources Management (2006), requiring partner States to adopt joint programs for equitable utilization of transboundary waters[48]. Such regional frameworks demonstrate that fulfilling the right to water and sanitation transcends national boundaries and relies on shared stewardship of water resources[49].

1.3.5. Monitoring, Accountability and Participation

Finally, to fulfil the right effectively, States must establish monitoring mechanisms to track access, quality, and affordability, and to identify groups left behind[50]. Regular reporting under the ICESCR, Universal Periodic Review, and SDG 6 indicators provides accountability for progress[51]. Moreover, access to effective remedies (administrative, judicial, or quasi-judicial) is indispensable[52]. The CESCR has underscored that individuals must be able to seek redress when their right to water or sanitation is violated, whether through inadequate supply, disconnections, or contamination[53].

Participation is another crucial component. Fulfilment requires that communities, especially women and marginalized groups, actively participate in planning, implementation, and evaluation of water and sanitation programs[54]. This participatory approach ensures that services are culturally acceptable, gender-sensitive, and locally sustainable[55]. A 2024 University of oxford report, for instance, analyzes community engagement in domestic water supply under Kenya’s decentralized framework. Water Users Associations (WARUAs) and feedback mechanisms enhance transparency, with success in adaptative governance despite challenges like multiple models’ coexistence. It stresses capacity building for WRUAs to ensure equitable access[56].

2.Specific targets of SDG 6

The Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6), adopted as part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, represents the global commitment to “ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all”[57]. SDG 6 is particularly relevant to the human rights framework, as it operationalizes the normative content of the rights to water and sanitation recognized in instruments such as the ICESCR, General Comment No. 15, and UNGA Res 64/292[58].

The goal is subdivided into eight targets, which collectively cover universal access to safe drinking water, adequate sanitation, water-use efficiency, integrated water resources management, protection of ecosystems, and international cooperation[59]. This section will examine the most legally and socially significant targets, emphasizing the human rights obligations of States and the measures required to achieve them.

2.1. Universal access to safe drinking water

Universal access to safe drinking water is a fundamental human right and an essential component of SDG Target 6.1, which aims to achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all by 2030. This target directly corresponds with the legal obligations enshrined in Article 11 and 12 of the ICESCR and clarified in General Comment No. 15, which outlines availability, quality, accessibility, affordability, and acceptability as core normative dimensions[60].

 2.1.1. Availability and Reliability

Availability requires that water be sufficient in quantity to meet personal and domestic needs, including drinking, cooking, and hygiene[61]. States are obliged to take positive measures such as developing infrastructure, ensuring consistent water supply, and mitigating risks of contamination[62]. For example, the Kenya Water Master Plan emphasizes investment in water storage, purification, and distribution networks to ensure continuous access, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions.

Water availability is also linked to climate resilience. Droughts, floods, and other climate-related events disrupt water supply, disproportionately affecting marginalized communities[63]. Therefore, States must integrate climate adaptation measures into water management strategies, consistent with the CESCR’s call for proactive and preventive steps to ensure access under all circumstances.

 2.1.2. Quality and safety standards

Quality is a central pillar of universal access. Water must be safe, potable, and free from contamination that poses a threat to health[64]. States must adopt standards consistent with WHO guidelines, monitor compliance, and implement corrective measures[65]. The CESCR emphasizes that water services must protect users from biological, chemical, and radiological hazards[66]. Failure to ensure quality not only violates the right to health but also undermines the realization of other socio-economic rights[67].

Mechanisms for water quality monitoring include routine testing, public reporting, and enforcement of penalties against polluters[68]. In urban centers like Kigali, Rwanda, municipal water authorities have implemented real-time monitoring systems to detect and address contamination, aligning technical measures with human rights obligations.

 2.1.3. Accessibility and Non-discrimination

Accessibility encompasses physical and economic dimensions. Water facilities must be within safe reach of households, and services must be affordable, without discrimination[69]. States must particularly address inequalities affecting rural populations, persons with disabilities, and marginalized groups[70]. Article 2(2) of the ICESCR requires that rights be exercised without discrimination of any kind, including on the basis of gender, age, ethnicity, or socio-economic status.

Affordability measures may include subsidies, lifeline tariffs, or cross-subsidization to ensure low-income households are not deprived of essential water[71]. Failure to provide affordable access constitutes a breach of the State’s duty to fulfil and can exacerbate social inequalities[72].

 2.1.4. Implementation and International Cooperation

Achieving universal access to safe drinking water often exceeds the capacity of a single State, particularly in developing countries. SDG Target 6.a emphasizes international cooperation to expand water-related infrastructure, strengthen institutional capacity, and transfer technology[73]. Regional organizations, such as the East African Community (EAC) and African Ministers’ Council on Water (AMCOW), provide frameworks for joint financing, planning, and management of transboundary water resources[74].

The right to water’s international dimension is reinforced by obligations under Article 2(1) of the ICESCR, requiring States to take steps individually and through cooperation to realize economic, social, and cultural rights[75]. This includes supporting low-income countries in their efforts to meet universal access goals, particularly in post-conflict or fragile contexts[76].

2.2. Adequate and equitable sanitation for all

SDG Target 6.2 aims to achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all, with a focus on the needs of women, girls, and vulnerable populations[77]. Sanitation is intimately linked to public health, dignity, gender equality, and environmental sustainability[78]. From a human rights perspective, inadequate sanitation constitutes a violation of the right to water, the right to health, and, in certain circumstances, the right to life[79].

 2.2.1. Adequacy and Human dignity

Adequate sanitation implies safely managed facilities that separate human excreta from human contact and ensure proper treatment and disposal[80]. The CESCR has emphasized that sanitation must meet minimum essential levels to protect health, dignity, and privacy[81]. For women and girls, sanitation facilities must be gender-sensitive, secure, and accessible in schools, workplaces, and public spaces[82].

 2.2.2. Equitability and non-discrimination

Equitable access requires deliberate targeting of marginalized and vulnerable populations[83]. Rural communities, informal settlements, and displaced persons are often excluded from sanitation infrastructure[84]. Positive measures include subsidized latrines, community-led total sanitation programs, and inclusive urban planning[85].

International cooperation plays a role where domestic resources are insufficient. Programs supported by UNICEF, WHO, and development banks often fund school sanitation facilities, hygiene promotion, and waste management systems in low-income countries, thus fulfilling the State’s obligations to progressively realize sanitation rights[86].

2.2.3. Integration and Hygiene health

Sanitation cannot be separated from hygiene practices. SDG 6.2 underscores handwashing and hygiene education as essential components. The CESCR highlights that access to water and sanitation without hygiene education may not achieve meaningful health outcomes[87]. Integrated programs addressing water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) ensure coherence with public health objectives, reducing the incidence of waterborne diseases and promoting gender equality[88].

2.3. Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM)

SDG Target 6.5 calls for the implementation of integrated water resources management at all levels, including transboundary cooperation. IWRM is a process that promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land, and related resources to maximize social and economic welfare without compromising sustainability.

 2.3.1. Legal and Institutional frameworks

Effective IWRM requires clear legal frameworks that define water rights, responsibilities, and dispute-resolution mechanisms[89]. At the regional level, agreements such as the Nile Basin Initiative, the Southern African Development Community (SADC) Protocol on Shared Watercourses, and the EAC Protocol on Environment and Natural Resources establish obligations for sustainable and equitable water management[90].

National laws must integrate IWRM principles, ensuring cross-sectoral coordination among agriculture, energy, industry, and urban planning[91]. Institutions must possess technical and regulatory capacity to enforce water allocation, protect ecosystems, and mediate competing demands[92].

 2.3.2. Sustainability and Ecosystem Protection

Sustainable management is essential to protect aquatic ecosystems and maintain long-term water availability[93]. States must adopt measures to prevent over-extraction, pollution, and degradation of water bodies[94]. General Comment No. 15 highlights that the right to water is interdependent with environmental protection, as degraded water sources compromise human access[95].

Monitoring frameworks, such as the SDG 6.5.1 Indicator on IWRM implementation, allow States to assess legal, policy, and institutional progress, ensuring accountability and transparency.

 2.3.3. Transboundary Cooperation and International Law

IWRM has an inherently international dimension. Many rivers, lakes, and aquifers cross national boundaries, requiring States to cooperate in accordance with international water law[96]. The UN Watercourses Convention of 1997 provides principles for equitable utilization, obligation not to cause significant harm, and dispute resolution[97]. SDG Target 6.5 explicitly encourages cooperative frameworks that respect sovereignty while promoting joint management.

Practical examples include the Mekong River Commission, which coordinates development projects to balance hydropower, agriculture, and environmental protection, and the Lake Victoria Basin Commission, which harmonizes water policies across Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania[98]. Such initiatives demonstrate that integrated management is a prerequisite for realizing universal water and sanitation rights sustainably.

 2.4. Monitoring and Accountability Mechanisms

Effective realization of the human rights to water and sanitation, as operationalized through SDG 6 and related instruments, depends not only on legislative, institutional, and policy measures but also on robust monitoring and accountability mechanisms. States are required to ensure that obligations under the ICESCR, as well as under General Comment No. 15 and other human rights instruments, are meaningfully implemented, evaluated, and corrected where necessary[99]. Monitoring serves as a mechanism to assess compliance with normative standards, track progress toward SDG 6 targets, and identify populations left behind[100]. Accountability mechanisms, in turn, enable redress, enforcement, and participatory oversight, ensuring that the right to water and sanitation is not only recognized but realized in practice[101].

Monitoring and accountability can be institutional, procedural, and participatory, operating at domestic, regional, and international levels[102]. They also integrate quantitative and qualitative measures, combining statistical indicators with human rights-based assessments[103].

 2.4.1. Voluntary National Reviews (VNRs)

Voluntary National Reviews (VNRs) constitute a cornerstone of the SDG monitoring architecture. Initiated under the 2030 Agenda, VNRs are submitted annually by States to the High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF) to report on their progress toward SDG implementation, including SDG 6[104]. They serve as transparency and accountability instruments, providing data on water and sanitation access, institutional reforms, resource mobilization, and policy outcomes[105].

 2.4.1.1. Legal and Normative Basis

While VNRs are voluntary and not legally binding, they intersect with the human rights framework. The CESCR has emphasized that monitoring mechanisms must include regular reporting, assessment of compliance, and stakeholder participation[106]. VNRs operationalize this principle by requiring States to provide disaggregated data, allowing identification of marginalized populations and persistent inequalities[107]. They also foster peer review and international scrutiny, strengthening the normative impact of the human right to water and sanitation[108].

VNRs complement ICESCR reporting obligations, where States submit periodic reports on steps taken to progressively realize economic, social, and cultural rights[109]. Through alignment with SDG 6 indicators, VNRs provide an additional benchmark against internationally recognized targets, ensuring consistency between rights obligations and sustainable development objectives[110].

 2.4.1.2. Methodology and Content

A well-structured VNR combines quantitative indicators, such as the proportion of the population using safely managed drinking water (SDG Indicator 6.1.1) or safely managed sanitation services (SDG Indicator 6.2.1), with qualitative assessments of legal frameworks, institutional effectiveness, budget allocations, and social equity measures. States are encouraged to report on:

• Access and coverage: Progress toward universal water and sanitation access, including geographic and demographic disparities[111];
• Affordability and quality: Measures to ensure sufficient, safe, and affordable services, including standards, pricing policies, and water quality monitoring[112];
• Institutional capacity: Governance structures, regulatory agencies, and inter-sectoral coordination for SDG 6 implementation[113];
• Policy and legislative reforms: Integration of human rights-based approaches, national strategies, and legal guarantees[114];
• International cooperation: Engagement in transboundary water management and receipt of technical and financial assistance where needed[115].

VNRs also encourage participatory processes, requiring States to involve civil society, communities, and local authorities in data collection, planning, and validation[116]. This aligns with the CESCR’s emphasis on participatory monitoring as an element of accountability[117].

 2.4.1.3. Strengths and Limitations

VNRs contribute to transparency and peer accountability. By making information publicly available, they allow stakeholders, including civil society organizations and academia, to assess performance, compare countries, and advocate for improvements[118]. They also provide a feedback loop, where HLPF deliberations inform subsequent national policy adjustments[119].

However, VNRs have limitations. Being voluntary, they lack binding enforcement, and reporting quality varies significantly between States[120]. Some VNRs may prioritize aggregate national progress over the situation of marginalized groups, thereby obscuring inequalities[121]. Moreover, VNRs may not fully integrate human rights indicators or mechanisms for corrective action in cases of persistent violations[122]. To address these gaps, several civil society networks advocate for complementary human rights monitoring, including shadow reports under the ICESCR and independent audits of SDG 6 implementation.

 2.4.1.4. Case Examples

Countries such as Rwanda (VNR 2020) and Kenya (VNR 2021) have exemplified best practices by including disaggregated data on rural and urban access, gender-sensitive sanitation initiatives, and budget allocations for water infrastructure[123]. These reviews document the integration of national policies, legislative reforms, and community-based projects, illustrating the practical linkage between SDG monitoring and human rights fulfillment[124].

 2.4.2. UN Special Rapporteur on the Human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation

The UN Special Rapporteur (SR) plays a critical role in monitoring, promoting, and enforcing the human rights to water and sanitation globally[125]. Established by the UN Human Rights Council, the SR has a mandate to investigate, report, and advise on all aspects of access to safe drinking water and sanitation, emphasizing State compliance with international human rights law[126].

 2.4.2.1. Mandate and Functions

The SR’s mandate encompasses several interrelated functions:

Monitoring and reporting: The SR collects data on the realization of water and sanitation rights, identifies systemic violations, and produces thematic and country reports submitted to the Human Rights Council and the UN General Assembly[127].

Advisory and normative guidance: The SR develops normative guidance, including recommendations on legislative, policy, and budgetary measures necessary to fulfill water and sanitation rights[128].

Special country missions: The SR undertakes visits to States, meeting with authorities, civil society, and affected populations, to assess compliance and recommend corrective action[129].

International cooperation: The SR engages with intergovernmental and regional organizations, promoting harmonization between human rights obligations and sustainable development objectives[130].

Past mandate holders, including Catarina de Albuquerque[131], Leo Heller[132], and Pedro Arrojo-Agudo[133], have produced extensive reports, guidelines, and toolkits to support States in operationalizing water and sanitation rights.

 2.4.2.2. Integration with SDG Monitoring

The SR actively links human rights monitoring with SDG reporting, including the Voluntary National Reviews[134]. By reviewing the implementation of SDG 6 through a rights-based lens, the SR highlights whether progress toward universal access also reflects non-discrimination, affordability, and accountability obligations[135]. This ensures that SDG targets do not remain purely quantitative but are evaluated in terms of normative compliance with international law.

 2.4.2.3. Accountability mechanisms

The SR contributes to accountability in several ways:

• Recommendations to States: After missions, the SR issues country-specific recommendations for legislative reform, infrastructure development, and service delivery improvements[136];
• Follow-up and thematic reporting: Reports are submitted to the Human Rights Council, prompting discussions, resolutions, or invitations for remedial action[137];
• Engagement with civil society: The SR amplifies the voice of affected communities, particularly marginalized groups, fostering participatory oversight and rights-based monitoring[138].

Through these mechanisms, the SR complements domestic enforcement, international oversight, and SDG monitoring, serving as both a normative guide and a catalyst for compliance.

 2.4.2.4 Challenges and opportunities

Despite its centrality, the SR’s role faces resource constraints, limited enforcement authority, and varying State cooperation[139]. Not all States permit missions or respond fully to recommendations, and follow-up mechanisms remain largely non-binding[140]. Nevertheless, the SR has successfully influenced national policies, legislation, and investment priorities, especially in Latin America, Africa, and Asia, demonstrating the practical impact of normative advocacy[141].

The SR also plays a critical role in emergency contexts, providing guidance on ensuring access to safe water during conflicts, natural disasters, and pandemics, thereby linking human rights with humanitarian imperatives[142]. Moreover, the SR promotes regional cooperation and South-South learning, highlighting innovative models for achieving SDG 6 while respecting human rights[143].

2.4.2.5. Complementarity with Other Mechanisms

The SR’s work complements national human rights institutions (NHRIs), Ombudsman offices, judicial remedies, and civil society monitoring[144]. Collectively, these mechanisms constitute a multilayered accountability framework, ensuring that States’ obligations to respect, protect, and fulfil the rights to water and sanitation are monitored, enforced, and continuously improved[145].

Conclusion

The journey from normative recognition to practical realization of the human rights to water and sanitation is both a legal imperative and development necessity. This analysis has demonstrated that for East Africa Community (EAC) States, the tripartite typology of obligations-to respect, protect, and fulfill-provides an indispensable legal framework. Concurrently, the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 architecture offers a critical operational roadmap, translating abstract norms into measurable targets for universal access.

However, this normative-policy convergence confronts profound challenges: systemic resources constraints, governance fragmentation, transboundary management complexities, and the persistent exclusion of marginalized population. Overcoming these barriers demands more than political will; it requires actionable coherence. States must enact robust legislative reforms, prioritize and safeguard sector financing, strengthen institutional capacity, and embed participatory, equity-focused monitoring into the core of national and regional agendas.

Ultimately, the realization of these rights is a litmus test for the foundational principles of human dignity, equality, and sustainable development within the EAC. It necessitates moving beyond siloed initiatives to forge an integrated approach where international law, regional cooperation, and national implementation are mutually reinforcing. By aligning binding human rights obligations with the strategic pursuit of SDG 6, EAC States can transform the rights to water and sanitation from aspirational norms into a tangible, daily reality for all.

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Information about the author:
Niyonzima Dieudonne (1042245387), PhD student, Department of International Law, RUDN University.

Информация об авторе:
Нийонзима Дьедонне, аспирант кафедры международного права РУДН.

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[1] International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, art. 2(1), 11, and 12.

[2] Louise Arbour, « Economic and social justice for societies in transition », New York University Journal of International Law and Politics, n^o 1 (2007): 14‑15, https://search.gesis.org/publication/csa-ps-200813750.

[3] OHCHR, OHCHR and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (OHCHR, 2018), 8‑11, https://www.ohchr.org/en/sdgs.

[4] General Comment No. 15 (2002) The right to water (arts. 11 and 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), § 20.

[5] General Comment No. 15 (2002) The right to water (arts. 11 and 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), § 21‑29.

[6] Alan Boyle, « Human Rights and the Environment: Where Next? », European Journal of International Law 23 (2012): 622‑24, https://www.ejil.org/pdfs/23/3/2296.pdf.

[7] General Comment No. 15 (2002) The right to water (arts. 11 and 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), § 12‑13.

[8] Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015: 70/1. Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, Goal 6.

[9] World Health Organization, Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality.

[10] WHO et UNICEF, Progress on Household Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene, 2000-2020, 10‑11.

[11] Albuquerque, « Report of the Independent Expert on the Issue of Human Rights Obligations Related to Access to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation Catarina de Albuquerque: Addendum; Draft Preliminary Note on the Mission to Egypt », 37‑40.

[12] Kayo Kaneko et al., « Effectiveness of the Maternal and Child Health handbook in Burundi for increasing notification of birth at health facilities and postnatal care uptake », Global Health Action 10, n^o 1 (2017): 3‑4, https://doi.org/10.1080/16549716.2017.1297604; Ildephonse Sindayigaya, « The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, an Instrument Based on African Socio-Cultural Realities: Truth or Utopia? », Open Journal of Social Sciences 12, n^o 02 (2024): 521‑22, https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2024.122030.

[13] The Treaty for the Establishment of the East Africa Community 1999 — 2006, art. 111, 112 and 114 §1(b).

[14] Protocol for Sustainable Development of Lake Victoria Basin, art. Preamble, 4(1)(a) and 33.

[15] Corporate Communications & Public Affairs Department et al., « EAC Water Sanitation and Hygiene Project (WASH) improves the lives of border communities in the region », 31 juillet 2024, https://www.eac.int/press-releases/147-health/3146-eac-water-sanitation-and-hygiene-project-wash-improves-the-lives-of-border-communities-in-the-region.

[16] Protocol for Sustainable Development of Lake Victoria Basin, append. §1.

[17] Protocol for Sustainable Development of Lake Victoria Basin, append. §2.

[18] Corporate Communications & Public Affairs Department et al., « EAC Water Sanitation and Hygiene Project (WASH) improves the lives of border communities in the region ».

[19] The Treaty for the Establishment of the East Africa Community 1999 — 2006, art. 114(1)(c).

[20] Corporate Communications & Public Affairs Department et al., « EAC Water Sanitation and Hygiene Project (WASH) improves the lives of border communities in the region ».

[21] Corporate Communications & Public Affairs Department et al., « EAC Water Sanitation and Hygiene Project (WASH) improves the lives of border communities in the region ».

[22] Protocol for Sustainable Development of Lake Victoria Basin, append. §1-2.

[23] Protocol for Sustainable Development of Lake Victoria Basin, art. 111‑114.

[24] General Comment No. 15 (2002) The right to water (arts. 11 and 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), § 20.

[25] General Comment No. 15 (2002) The right to water (arts. 11 and 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), § 25‑26.

[26] General Comment No. 15 (2002) The right to water (arts. 11 and 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), § 12(a)–(c), 25–29.

[27] International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, art. 2(1), 11(1), and 12(1); General Comment No. 15 (2002) The right to water (arts. 11 and 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), § 44(a).

[28] General Comment No. 15 (2002) The right to water (arts. 11 and 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), § 44(b)–(d).

[29] Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (1996), art. 27(1)(b), https://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/constitution-republic-south-africa-1996-04-feb-1997; Water Services Act 108 of 1997 (1997), § 3(1)– (2), https://www.gov.za/documents/water-services-act.

[30] Uruguay Constitution of 1966 (Reinst. 1985, Rev. 2004) (2004), art. 47, https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Uruguay_2004; Mexican Political Constitution (2012), art. 4, https://www.te.gob.mx/sites/default/files/consultas/2012/04/political_constitution_v2_pdf_20009.pdf; Constitution of Kenya (2010), art. 43(1)(d), https://www.parliament.go.ke/sites/default/files/2023-03/The_Constitution_of_Kenya_2010.pdf.

[31] Albuquerque, « Report of the Independent Expert on the Issue of Human Rights Obligations Related to Access to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation Catarina de Albuquerque: Addendum; Draft Preliminary Note on the Mission to Egypt », paragr. 22.

[32] Catarina de Albuquerque, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Human Right to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation: Common Violations of the Human Rights to Water and Sanitation, UN Doc. A/HRC/27/55 (UN Human Rights Council, 2014), paragr. 27‑28, https://www.refworld.org/reference/annualreport/unhrc/2014/en/101052.

[33] International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, art. 2(1).

[34] General Comment No. 3: The Nature of States Parties’ Obligations (Art. 2, Para. 1, of the Covenant), § 10.

[35] Report on the fifty-seventh, fifty-eighth and fifty-ninth sessions: Concluding Observations on the Combined Second to Fourth Reports of Kenya, Acte juridique No. UN Doc. E/C.12/KEN/CO/2-4 (2016), § 37, https://documents.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/g17/001/02/pdf/g1700102.pdf.

[36] General Comment No. 15 (2002) The right to water (arts. 11 and 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), § 37(f).

[37] General Comment No. 15 (2002) The right to water (arts. 11 and 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), § 48.

[38] Ministère de l’Eau, de l’Environnement, de l’Aménagement du Territoire et de l’Urbanisme, Politique Nationale d’Assainissement du Burundi et Stratégie Opérationnelle Horizon 2025, 11‑13 ; Republic of Kenya, National Water Policy 2021 (Ministry of Water, Sanitation and Irrigation, 2021), 9‑10, https://www.water.go.ke/index.php/node/1004.

[39] General Comment No. 15 (2002) The right to water (arts. 11 and 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), § 47.

[40] General Comment No. 15 (2002) The right to water (arts. 11 and 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), § 26.

[41] General Comment No. 15 (2002) The right to water (arts. 11 and 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), § 25.

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[45] General Comment No. 15 (2002) The right to water (arts. 11 and 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), § 38‑40.

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[47] African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (Banjul Charter), art. 16; Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (Maputo Protocol), art. 15(b).

[48] Protocol on Environment and Natural Resource Management, art. 13(1)(a)–(c).

[49] Protocol on Environment and Natural Resource Management, art. 6(2)(e).

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[68] International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, art. 2(1), 11(1), 12(1).

[69] General Comment No. 15 (2002) The right to water (arts. 11 and 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), § 16(c).

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[77] Protocol on Environment and Natural Resource Management, art. 13(1)(a)–(c) and 6(2)(e).

[78] Protocol on Environment and Natural Resource Management, art. 6(2)(e).

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[95] General Comment No. 15 (2002) The right to water (arts. 11 and 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), § 1.

[96] Russell et McCaffrey, « Tapping Transboundary Waters: Implications of the Right to Water for States Sharing International Watercourses », 148‑51.

[97] Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses, art. 5‑7.

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[145] General Comment No. 15 (2002) The right to water (arts. 11 and 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), § 46‑47.