Международно-правовые проблемы сохранения биологического разнообразия в Амазонии

Защита биологических ресурсов стала одной из самых сложно реализуемых концепций в научной сфере и в международном праве, что привело к появлению различных подходов к решению концепции биологического биоразнообразия, а также существующих способов ее решения. На практике получается весьма непросто глобально защищать территории, обладающие высоким генетическим разнообразием и группами видов, не нарушая при этом норм международного права, в том числе принцип суверенитета государств над своими ресурсами и территорией. Амазония — природная область Южной Америки, объединяющая территорию нескольких государств (Бразилии, Колумбии, Эквадора, Перу, Боливии, Венесуэлы, Гайаны и Суринама). Это территория с самым большим количеством биологических ресурсов на Земле, однако деятельность человека привела к тому, что эти ресурсы резко сократились, баланс биологического разнообразия находится под угрозой и снижает способность организмов адаптироваться к новым обстоятельствам. В статье автор анализирует международно-правовую базу, регулирующую сохранение биологического разнообразия, а также обсуждает применимость терминов «общая забота человечества» и «общее наследие человечества» к этим территориям, где обнаружено наибольшее количество биологического биоразнообразия в мире, что делает их предметом беспокойства не только для отдельных стран региона, но также и темой для международного сообщества.

Ключевые слова: биоразнообразие, тропические леса Амазонки, международное право, разнообразие экосистем, экологические услуги, биологические ресурсы.

International legal problems of conservation of biological diversity in the Amazon

Abstract: The protection of natural and biological resources has been one of the most controversial concepts in the scientific field and in international law, which has led to the emergence of various approaches on how to address the concept of biological biodiversity, and the existing ways to globally protect the territories that contain high genetic diversity and groups of species, without violating the rules of international law, among them «the sovereignty of countries over their resources and territory». The Amazon is one of the territories with more biological resources on earth, however human activity has caused these resources to be drastically reduced, the balance of biological diversity is threatened and reduces the ability of organisms to adapt to new circumstances; Because of this it has been discussed whether the terms «common concern of humankind» and  » common heritage of humankind» are applicable in these territories where the greatest amount of biological biodiversity is found to make them not just a concern to countries individually, where there are  biological resources, but also a topic for the international community.

Keywords: Biodiversity,  Amazon rainforest, international law, ecosystem diversity, ecological services, biological resources.

Biological diversity has been one of the concepts developed in international law because the changes that occur in it have a global impact, making biological diversity an international issue and not just national or regional one. In this article we will set forth the definition of biological biodiversity, its development in international law, and the state of biological diversity in the Amazon today.

The definition of biological diversity was set out in article 2 of the Convention on Biological Diversity as follows:

 “The variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems»[1].

All of this allows us to conclude that the variability of life is composed of a complex ecosystem diversity, species diversity, and genetic diversity that has resulted over the past 4.5 billion years of Earth. The first argument that was analysed against the regulation of biological diversity in international law was due to the existence of the principle of national sovereignty over natural resources. However, it was migratory species that allowed us to question whether biological protection should be purely national, so it became a necessary international issue, because no individual state could protect these species. Another argument against the international protection of biological diversity was that most species are local, do not migrate and are found in certain countries. However, this argument was easily refuted, and it was scientifically concluded that threats to species groups have an international character[2].

One of the reasons why the local protection of species should be an international issue is that in many cases the existing threats to biological diversity are international, such as the poaching. International cooperation is needed to combat it effectively, and for the implementation and enforcement of national conservation measures. Diversity also became important in international law because conservation is global in nature, in relation to positive externality effects, that is, ecosystem diversity provides global benefits indirectly and implicitly globally.

a) Mechanism to protect Biological Diversity

Several mechanisms for the protection of biological diversity have been created in international law, including the Principles of Biological Diversity, International Treaties, and contractual obligations:

United Nation Environment Programme has determined five principles of biological diversity, the first one is the Precautionary Principle, established in the Article 15 of Rio declaration[3] and in the preamble of the Convention on Biological Diversity[4], which refers to the fact that certainty is not necessary before undertaking action. The principle of intergenerational equity, which was articulated in Principle number 2 of the 1972 Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment[5] and Principle number 3 of the 1992 Rio Declaration and in the preamble of the Convention on Biological Diversity, states the duty to conserve resources is not only for the benefit of the present generation, but the future generation. The Principle sovereign right of states over their biological resources established in the preamble and Article 3 of the CBD, affirmed the responsibility of each state for the conservation and sustainable use of its own biological diversity.   The principle of responsibility for transboundary harm, which is stipulated in Article 3 of the CBD and as well as Principle 2 of the 1992 Rio Declaration. This principle ensures that activities within the jurisdiction and control of a state do not cause damage to biological diversity beyond its jurisdiction. The principle of common concern of humankind set out in the preamble of the CBD, states that the biological diversity has a universal value and that is a global responsibility. The last principle is the principle of differentiated responsibilities, which addresses the idea that responsibility is not the same for all countries. Therefore, countries are expected to contribute differently to international environmental efforts based on their capabilities and historical responsibilities, although this dynamic has changed in recent years. In accordance with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the Global Commitment was established as a principle, making it the obligation of all countries worldwide and interested parties to contribute to international environmental efforts through cooperation. This commitment was made while acknowledging the different realities, capacities, and levels of national development[6] [7].

International treaties have been one of the best mechanisms to achieve an effective conservation of biological diversity, among these treaties are the treaties related to the conservation of the wildlife of certain species and the protection of species against overexploitation by humans. In addition to the creation of the International Union for Conservation of Nature, which maintains a red list of species that are threatened or in danger of extinction, the aim is to protect these species internationally by developing a regulatory system to safeguard animals found on the list from human uses.

Examples:

1. Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, 1973[8].
2. Convention for the Protection of Migratory birds, 1916[9].
3. Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds and Game Mammals, 1936[10].
4. International Convention for the Regulation of whaling, 1946[11].
5. Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat, 1971[12].
6. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, 1973[13].
7. Ramsar Convention on the Protection of wetlands, 1971[14].
8. Convention for Conservation and Management of Vicuna, 1979[15].
9. Convention on Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, 1980[16].
10. Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992[17].

Another mechanism of international law to protect biological diversity is contractual obligation. These types of agreements are made between countries and private enterprises. In debt-for-nature swaps, countries agree to undertake conservation measures in exchange for the forgiveness of their debt. Additionally, countries and enterprises enter into access agreements, where a country provides access to its biological resources in exchange for royalty payments[18]

b) National sovereignty and the protection of Biological Diversity

     In principle, national sovereignty allows for us to conclude that it leads to negative implications for effective international protection. This is because states possess sovereignty over the biological resources within their territories, and a habitat can only be listed under an international convention if the source country agrees to it. If the source country disagrees, it cannot be bound against its will. In conclusion, international actions are contingent upon the consent of the source state where biological diversity is located (habitat).

However, National Sovereignty does not always have negative implications, as it can sometimes be used as a tool for the effective conservation of biological diversity. This is achieved by allowing the respective source states to charge access fees and thereby regain some of the value of their resources, which would otherwise be lost as a result of externality.

c) The Biological Diversity in the Amazon

       The Amazon covers an area of 7.4 million km2, representing 4.9% of the world’s continental area. This vast region extends across the territories of Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela.[19]. The Amazon is the largest and most biodiverse tropical forest in the world, home to 10% of the species and storing 20% of the planet’s fresh water. With its high tree density, it serves as one of the largest carbon sinks, playing a crucial role in regulating the global climate[20].

This territory is a region with international relevance due to its biodiversity, cultural richness and abundance of natural resources, which is why the need to address these issues in international law has been discussed, especially in international environmental law, and because the Amazon States have struggled to carry out effective protection of the Amazon, due to the inability to reach all remote locations of the Amazon and the lack of an effective cooperation among Amazonian countries to combat forest fires, agricultural production, mining, infrastructure development, and illegal crops that threatens the existence of diversity.

One of the instruments that regulate the protection of the amazon is the Amazon Cooperation Treaty[21], which has the objective of creating forms of cooperation to protect and conserve the natural resources of the Amazon, however the Treaty does not textually mention the concept of biodiversity but establishes the forms of cooperation to achieve the conservation and rational use of natural resources. However, it was not until the Declaration of the 2nd Meeting of ACT Amazon Countries on February 10 and 11 in 1992, considering the views of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, that the importance of sovereignty, biotechnology, cooperation, and the protection of biodiversity in the Amazon was established[22].

Another important instrument is the Leticia Pact for the Amazon, signed in 2019 by Bolivia, Colombia, Brazil, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, and Suriname. Although it is not legally binding, it is of great significance in reaffirming the rights and responsibilities of the countries in the Amazon region regarding the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.  Mandate 1 established the need to assess biodiversity and the damage caused by deforestation and forest degradation. Mandate 8 emphasized the importance of connectivity of protected areas for the conservation, sustainable use of biodiversity, and restoration[23].

The latest effort to protect biodiversity was undertaken through the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF). Several indigenous organizations in the Amazon presented recommendations to ensure the functional structure of the Amazon Forest These organizations actively participated in the negotiations in Nairobi, Kenya, since June 2022, contributing to the creation of a new draft post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework[24].  The framework was adopted during the 15th meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, held in Montreal, Canada, on December 19, 2022. The title was subtly changed to the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF)[25] to address not only the loss of biodiversity in the Amazon region but also globally.

In this new Global Framework, it addressed the innovative strategy of linking the effective protection of biocultural ecosystems together with sociocultural connectivity. The new perspective of the importance of ecosystem and sociocultural connectivity is due to the link between biodiversity, climate change and the rights of indigenous peoples, where indigenous territories are recognized as models of conservation due to their ancestral knowledge, knowledge that they hope to use so that they contribute to the maintenance of biodiversity and the reduction of emissions. This is how the recognition of the role of indigenous people will be of great importance and benefit for the ordering and management of the territories they occupy[26].

Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) seeks that the Amazonian countries commit to specific and pertinent goals, striving for the protection of at least 80% of the Amazon by 2025 through:

 — The reduction or cessation of deforestation,

 — The reduction of land use change

 and thus prevent the point of no return.

This is how, at present, the efforts that are being made within this framework recognize the pivotal role of indigenous people as effective actors to maintain the biological and cultural diversity of the forest. It is crucial to clearly understand their contribution in achieving the conservation goals expected to be established in the said Framework[27].

d) Conclusions

As could be evidenced, there are multiple international treaties and agreements aimed at protecting biodiversity. However, each of the objectives established in these agreements, which need to be carried out by the States, lacks monitoring and assessment of the implementation and actions of each State involved in existing treaties for biodiversity protection. Therefore, more than the creation of new regulations, we need concrete actions for implementation. To achieve this, scientific and technological investment is necessary, along with cooperation between States and the active participation of indigenous communities and other communities affected by biodiversity damage. However, I believe that monitoring and tracking mechanisms should be established for the measures taken to protect the environment. This will ensure certainty regarding the progress and efforts of each country in relation to environmental protection.

Since the creation of the Convention on Biological Diversity, national strategies, and action on biological diversity (NSABD) were established in Article 6. However, these national strategies and actions lack specific monitoring and evaluation in their implementation, often making it difficult to have control over the progress of each party state in the protection of biological diversity.

Furthermore, the above allows us to acknowledge that the knowledge and ancestral practices of forest management and use, as implemented by the indigenous peoples of the Amazonian territory, particularly those applied in food systems that protect and restore biodiversity can serve as a model for safeguarding the Amazon’s biodiversity. This offers hope in achieving the goals set forth in the Sustainable Development Goals.

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[1] Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992, Art 2. Electronic resource: https://www.cbd.int/doc/legal/cbd-en.pdf.  Accessed. (Accessed: 17.01.2024).

[2] Birnie, P. Boyle, A. Redgwell, C. International Law and the Environmental. Cambridge, 2009, 3^rd ed, P. 583-648.

[3] Rio Declaration on Environment and development, 1992. Electronic resource: https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/generalassembly/docs/globalcompact/A_CONF.151_26_Vol.I_Declaration.pdf. (Accessed: 17.01.2024).

[4] Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992, page 6. Electronic resource: https://www.cbd.int/doc/legal/cbd-en.pdf.  Accessed. (Accessed: 17.01.2024).

[5] Stockholm Declaration on the Human environment, 1972. Electronic resource: https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/29567/ELGP1StockD.pdf. (Accessed: 17.01.2024).

[6] United Nations Information Portal on Multilateral Environmental Agreements. General Principles of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2020. Electronic resource: https://leap.unep.org/sites/default/files/2020-09/Unit%201%20-%20General%20Principles%20of%20the%20Convention%20on%20Biological%20Diversity.pdf. (Accessed: 17.01.2024).

[7] UN, The Importance of the MDGs: The United Nations Leadership in Development, 2007. Electronic resource: https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/importance-mdgs-united-nations-leadership-
development and Sustainable Development Goals, 2015.  . Electronic resource:https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/es/development-agenda/.  (Accessed: 17.01.2024).

[8] Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, 15 November 1973. Electronic resource: http://library.arcticportal.org/1867/1/Agreement-on-the-Conservation-of-Polar-Bears.pdf. (Accessed: 17.01.2024).

[9] Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds, 1916. Electronic resource: https://www.environmentandsociety.org/tools/keywords/convention-protection-migratory-birds. (Accessed: 17.01.2024).

[10] Convention for the protection of Migratory Birds and Game Mammals, 1936. Electronic resource: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2213727. (Accessed: 17.01.2024).

[11] International Convention for the Regulation of whaling, 1946. Electronic resource: https://iwc.int/commission/convention. (Accessed: 17.01.2024).

[12] Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat, 1971. Electronic resource: https://en.unesco.org/about-us/legal-affairs/convention-wetlands-international-importance-especially-waterfowl-habitat. (Accessed: 17.01.2024).

[13] Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, 1973. Electronic resource: https://cites.org/eng/disc/what.php. (Accessed: 17.01.2024).

[14] The Ramsar Convention on the Conservation of Wetlands, 1971. Electronic resource: https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/EPLP-023.pdf. (Accessed: 17.01.2024). Копылов М.Н., Солнцев А.М. Рамсарская конвенция 1971 г. и экосистемный подход к разумному использованию и устойчивому развитию водно-болотных угодий // Экологическое право. 2012. N 3. С. 27-34

[15] Convention for the Conservation and Management of Vicuna, 1979. Electronic resource: https://www.ecolex.org/details/treaty/convention-for-the-conservation-and-management-of-the-vicuna-tre-000102/. (Accessed: 17.01.2024).

[16] Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resource, 1980. Electronic resource: https://documents.ats.aq/keydocs/vol_1/vol1_12_CCAMLR_CCAMLR_e.pdf. (Accessed: 17.01.2024).

[17] Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992. Electronic resource: https://www.cbd.int/doc/legal/cbd-en.pdf. (Accessed: 17.01.2024).

[18] Bodansky, M. International Law, and the Protection of Biological Diversity, 1995. Electronic resource: https://scholarship.law.vanderbilt.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1891&context=vjtl. (Accessed: 17.01.2024).

[19] Amazonía posible y sostenible, (n.i). Pag 1 and 2. Electronic resource:https://www.cepal.org/sites/default/files/news/files/folleto_amazonia_posible_y_sostenible.pdf.  And (Accessed: 17.01.2024)

[20] WWF, 2022. Pag 16 and 17. Electronic resource: https://www.gaiaamazonas.org/noticias/2022-06-15_el-acuerdo-global-por-la-biodiversidad-debe-asegurar-la-conectividad-ecologica-y-sociocultural-de-la-amazonia/. (Accessed: 17.01.2024)

[21] Amazon Cooperation Treaty, 1978. URL: http://otca.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Amazon-Cooperation-Treaty.pdf. (Accessed: 01.06.2024)

[22] Legal Basis of The Amazon Cooperation Treaty, 2013. Pag 39. Electronic resource: http://otca.org/en/wp content/uploads/2021/01/LEGAL_BASIS.pdf. (Accessed: 01.02.2024).

[23] Pacto de Leticia: países amazónicos respaldan el fortalecimiento de la OTCA, (2019). Electronic resource:  https://www.cancilleria.gov.co/sites/default/files/planofactionfinaltext-5dicen12.pdf. (Accessed: 10.04.2023)

[24] Draft POST-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework, 2020. Electronic resource: https://www.cbd.int/conferences/post2020. (Accessed: 17.01.2024)

[25] Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, 2022. Electronic resource: https://www.cbd.int/doc/decisions/cop-15/cop-15-dec-04-en.pdf. (Accessed: 17.01.2024)

[26] Draft POST-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework, 2020. Pag 3. Electronic resource: https://www.cbd.int/conferences/post2020. (Accessed: 17.01.2024)

[27] Коваль Э.Ю., Солнцев А.М. Куньминско-монреальская глобальная рамочная программа в области биоразнообразия: международно-правовой анализ // Электронное сетевое издание «Международный правовой курьер». 2023. № 2. С. 30-38.

Информация об авторе:

Дженнифер Рубио Ортегон, аспирант, кафедра международного права юридического института Российского университета дружбы народов имени Патриса Лумумбы (РУДН).

Information about the author:

Jennifer Rubio Ortegon, PhD student at People’s Friendship University
Moscow, Russia.