В статье рассматриваются механизмы защиты женщин и детей в соответствии с международным гуманитарным правом в контексте сирийского конфликта (2011-2024 гг.). В ней анализируется проблема квалификации конфликта с точки зрения международного права и исследуются его последствия в контексте защиты гражданского населения. Особое внимание уделяется уязвимому положению женщин и детей в ситуациях вооруженного конфликта. На основе доктринальных источников и международно-правовых документов установлено, что существуют значительные сложности в области реализации обязательств по международному гуманитарному праву на практике. Делается вывод о необходимости укрепления механизмов подотчетности и разработки инструментов правосудия переходного периода для обеспечения эффективной защиты женщин и детей.
Ключевые слова: международное гуманитарное право, сирийский конфликт, уязвимые группы, вооружённый конфликт, защита гражданского населения, международная ответственность, международное право
Protection of Women and Children under International Humanitarian Law: The Case of the Syrian Conflict (2011–2024)
Abstract. The article examines the mechanisms for the protection of women and children under international humanitarian law in the context of the Syrian conflict (2011-2024). It analyzes the classification of the conflict from the perspective of international law and explores its implications for the scope of civilian protection. Particular attention is given to the vulnerable position of women and children in situations of armed conflict. Based on doctrinal sources and international reports, a significant gap between the normative framework of international humanitarian law and its practical implementation is identified. The conclusion is drawn on the necessity of strengthening accountability mechanisms and developing transitional justice tools to ensure effective protection of Women and children.
Keywords: International Humanitarian Law, Syrian conflict, vulnerable groups, armed conflict, civilian protection, international responsibility, public international law
In the contemporary system of international law, the protection of civilians constitutes one of the fundamental objectives of international humanitarian law[1]. This legal framework, primarily codified in the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols[2], establishes essential principles aimed at limiting the effects of armed conflict and safeguarding individuals who are not directly participating in hostilities.
Among these groups, women and children occupy a particularly vulnerable position due to structural inequalities and the specific risks they face during armed conflicts[3]. In this regard, the present study addresses the question of the extent to which international humanitarian law effectively ensures the protection of women and children in contemporary armed conflicts, taking the Syrian conflict as a case study.It proceeds from the assumption that the existing shortcomings are not primarily related to the insufficiency of legal norms, but rather to the limitations of their implementation and enforcement within the international system, which is widely emphasized in contemporary doctrine.
The Syrian conflict, which began in 2011, has evolved into one of the most complex and protracted armed conflicts of the twenty-first century. Initially emerging as part of broader political transformations in the Middle East, It rapidly escalated into a multifaceted confrontation involving both state and non-state actors, as well as significant international intervention[4].
This transformation has had profound humanitarian consequences, particularly for women and children, who have been disproportionately affected by violence, displacement, and the collapse of essential services.
From a legal perspective, the classification of the Syrian conflict plays a decisive role in determining the applicable legal regime. The conflict is generally characterized as a non-international armed conflict; however, the involvement of foreign states has introduced elements of internationalization, thereby complicating the legal framework governing the protection of civilians[5]. This complexity has significant implications not only for the applicability of legal norms but also for the attribution of responsibility and the effectiveness of enforcement mechanisms.
In situations of armed conflict, the relationship between international humanitarian law and international human rights law plays a decisive role in strengthening the protection of civilians, particularly vulnerable groups such as women and children. As affirmed in the jurisprudence of the International Court of Justice, human rights obligations do not cease in times of armed conflict; rather, they continue to apply alongside international humanitarian law. While international humanitarian law functions as lex specialis governing the conduct of hostilities, human rights law complements it by providing additional guarantees of protection. This parallel and mutually reinforcing application enhances the overall legal framework and contributes to closing potential gaps in the protection of individuals affected by armed conflict[6].
The Syrian conflict illustrates the critical challenges of implementing international humanitarian law in prolonged armed conflicts. Reports by international organizations have documented systemic violations against civilians, including indiscriminate attacks and the destruction of civilian infrastructure[7].
Concrete examples include repeated airstrikes on hospitals in Aleppo and Idlib, as well as attacks on schools and residential areas, which demonstrate violations of the principle of distinction and may constitute war crimes under Article 8 of the Rome Statute[8].
Furthermore, the principle of proportionality has been repeatedly undermined in the context of the Syrian conflict, particularly in the conduct of hostilities where military operations have resulted in excessive incidental civilian harm in relation to the anticipated military advantage. This pattern reflects not merely isolated violations, but a broader erosion of fundamental constraints imposed by international humanitarian law on the means and methods of warfare.
A particularly illustrative case is the siege of Eastern Ghouta, where the sustained restriction of humanitarian access, coupled with the deliberate deprivation of essential resources such as food, water, and medical supplies, led to catastrophic humanitarian consequences for the civilian population. Such practices, when employed systematically, may amount to the use of starvation of civilians as a method of warfare. This prohibition is firmly established under treaty and customary international law, which explicitly forbid the targeting of objects indispensable to the survival of the civilian population and the denial of humanitarian relief.
The persistence of such conduct in the Syrian context highlights the widening gap between the formal legal framework and its practical implementation, raising serious concerns regarding compliance and accountability in contemporary armed conflicts[9].
Women and children, representing the majority of displaced populations in Syria, face a complex set of vulnerabilities exacerbated by the collapse of socio-economic structures and the protracted nature of the conflict. According to the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), approximately 6.9 million children in Syria require humanitarian assistance, with over 2.5 million out-of-school children as of 2023[10]. These children are deprived not only of education but also of access to essential healthcare and psychological support, increasing their exposure to long-term developmental risks.
At the same time, The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) reports that more than 6.8 million people are internally displaced within Syria, and nearly 5.6 million have fled to neighboring countries, further highlighting the scale of disproportionate impact on women and children[11].
Women, meanwhile, often assume expanded economic and caregiving responsibilities under extremely difficult conditions, while simultaneously facing increased risks of gender-based violence and social marginalization, as noted in specialized studies[12].
These statistics underline the urgent necessity of effective implementation of international humanitarian law and targeted protection measures to safeguard these vulnerable populations in conflict context.
The issue of accountability for violations raises complex questions regarding both state responsibility and individual criminal liability[13]. While international law provides mechanisms for holding states accountable for internationally wrongful acts[14], individuals may also be prosecuted for war crimes under international criminal law[15], however, the absence of effective jurisdictional mechanisms, particularly due to political constraints within the United Nations Security Council, significantly limits the enforcement of accountability in the Syrian context.
Thus, the Syrian conflict clearly demonstrates the limitations of existing legal mechanisms. the analysis demonstrates that the primary challenge facing international humanitarian law is not the absence of normative frameworks, but rather the persistent failure of their effective implementation.
Women and children, as the most vulnerable groups, have borne a disproportionate share of these consequences. Their situation highlights the limitations of existing protection mechanisms and underscores the need for a more effective and integrated approach.It should be noted that the persistence of violations in the Syrian conflict is also caused by institutional limitations of the international legal system. In particular, the inability of the United Nations Security Council to adopt binding measures due to the use of veto power significantly undermines the effectiveness of accountability mechanisms. Furthermore, the limited jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court in the absence of a Security Council referral creates additional obstacles to the prosecution of individuals responsible for serious violations of international humanitarian law.
In conclusion, addressing these challenges requires strengthening accountability mechanisms, enhancing international cooperation, and incorporating gender-sensitive and child-centered approaches into legal frameworks.
The Syrian case thus serves as a critical test for the effectiveness of international humanitarian law in contemporary conditions, demonstrating that without real enforcement, even the most developed legal norms risk losing their practical significance.
Bibliographic list
- Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and Additional Protocols. International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), Arts. 3 common; Additional Protocol I (1977), Arts. 48, 51, 52. Available at: https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/publications/icrc-002-0173.pdf
- Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 17 July 1998, Art. 8 (War Crimes), paras. 2(a)–(e). United Nations Treaty Collection. Available at: https://legal.un.org/icc/statute/99_corr/2.htm
- Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 (Protocol I), 8 June 1977, Art. 54 (Protection of objects indispensable to the survival of the civilian population). International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). Available at: https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/ihl-treaties/api-1977/article-54
- International Law Commission. Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts. 2001. Arts. 1, 2, 31. Available at: https://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/draft_articles/9_6_2001.pdf
- Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 17 July 1998. Art. 25 (Individual Criminal Responsibility); Art. 8 (War Crimes). Available at: https://legal.un.org/icc/statute/99_corr/2.htm
- International Court of Justice (ICJ). Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory (Advisory Opinion). 9 July 2004. Paras. 106–107. Available at: https://www.icj-cij.org/node/103742
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- UNICEF. Humanitarian Situation Report: Syrian Arab Republic, 1 January – 31 December 2023. New York: United Nations Children’s Fund, 2024. P. 1–5. Available at: https://www.unicef.org/syria/reports/humanitarian-situation-report-1-january-31-december-2023
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Информация об авторе:
Кареем Алдеен Газаль, аспирант Юридического института Российского университета дружбы народов имени Патриса Лумумбы (РУДН)
Information about the author:
Kareem Aldeen Ghazal, postgraduate student at the Law Institute of the Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia named after Patrice Lumumba (RUDN University)
Изображение подготовлено с использованием ИИ
[1] Sassòli M. International Humanitarian Law: Rules, Controversies, and Solutions to Problems Arising in Warfare. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2019. P. 112–140.
[2] Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and Additional Protocols. International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). Arts. 3 common; Additional Protocol I (1977), Arts. 48, 51, 52.
[3] Al-Ali N., Pratt N. Women and Gender in the Syrian Conflict. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019. P. 60–95.
[4] Hinnebusch R., Saouli A. The War for Syria: Regional and International Dimensions of the Syrian Uprising. London: Routledge, 2019. P. 200–235.
[5] Akande D. “Classification of Armed Conflicts: Relevant Legal Concepts”, in: Wilmshurst E. (ed.), International Law and the Classification of Conflicts. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. P. 32–79.
[6] International Court of Justice (ICJ). Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory (Advisory Opinion). 9 July 2004. Paras.
[7] Bellal A. The War Report: Armed Conflicts in 2014. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. P. 256–270.
[8] Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 17 July 1998. Art. 8 (War Crimes), paras. 2(a)–(e).
[9] Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 (Protocol I), 8 June 1977. Art. 54.
[10] UNICEF. Humanitarian Situation Report: Syrian Arab Republic, 1 January – 31 December 2023. New York, 2024. P. 1–5.
[11]UNHCR. Syria Emergency Report. Geneva, 2024. P. 5–18.
[12] Al-Ali N., Pratt N. Women and Gender in the Syrian Conflict. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019. P. 60–95.
[13] Dinstein Y. The Conduct of Hostilities under the Law of International Armed Conflict. 3rd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021. P. 228–245.
[14] International Law Commission. Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts. 2001. Arts. 1, 2, 31.
[15] Criminal Court, 17 July 1998. Art. 25 (Individual Criminal Responsibility); Art. 8Ф
